Why ASIC Chip Evolution Matters
Every Bitcoin miner on the planet — from a single Bitaxe on a desk in Montreal to a warehouse full of S21 Pros in West Texas — runs on a tiny sliver of custom silicon. An Application-Specific Integrated Circuit. An ASIC. These chips do one thing: compute SHA-256 hashes as fast and as efficiently as physics allows. Nothing else. No email, no video rendering, no spreadsheets. Just hashing. Billions of times per second.
The evolution of these chips is the single most important variable in Bitcoin mining economics. Every generation shrinks the transistors, lowers the voltage, and pushes more hashes through each watt of electricity. When Bitmain released the BM1387 in 2016, the best miners on Earth pulled 98 J/TH. Today, the BM1370 achieves 15 J/TH. That is a 6.5x efficiency improvement in eight years — meaning the same electricity bill buys you 6.5 times more hashrate.
For home miners, this is not an abstract engineering story. It determines everything:
- Profitability — more efficient chips mean lower operating costs per terahash
- Heat output — less efficient chips produce more waste heat (which is actually useful if you are running a Bitcoin space heater)
- Noise — newer chips need less aggressive cooling, making them viable for living spaces
- Lifespan — understanding chip generations helps you evaluate used hardware and plan upgrades
- Repair decisions — knowing which chip is on your hashboard determines the repair approach and parts cost
This guide traces the complete lineage of Bitmain’s SHA-256 mining ASICs from the BM1385 through the BM1370. If you mine Bitcoin — or plan to — this is required reading.
Timeline Overview: Eight Years of Silicon Progress
Before diving into the technical details, here is the big picture. Each chip generation represents a leap in what a single ASIC can accomplish per watt of power consumed:
| Year | Chip | Process Node | Flagship Miner | Efficiency (J/TH) | Improvement |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | BM1385 | 28nm | Antminer S7 | ~250 J/TH | Baseline |
| 2016 | BM1387 | 16nm | Antminer S9 | 98 J/TH | ~2.5x vs BM1385 |
| 2018 | BM1391 | 7nm | Antminer S15 | 57 J/TH | 1.7x vs BM1387 |
| 2019 | BM1397 | 7nm (refined) | Antminer S17 Pro | 36–40 J/TH | 1.4x vs BM1391 |
| 2020 | BM1398 | 7nm (optimized) | Antminer S19 / S19 Pro | 29.5–34 J/TH | 1.2x vs BM1397 |
| 2021 | BM1362 | 5nm | Antminer S19j Pro | 29.5 J/TH | Node shrink, same efficiency tier |
| 2022 | BM1366 | 5nm (enhanced) | Antminer S19 XP | 21.5 J/TH | 1.4x vs BM1362 |
| 2023 | BM1368 | 5nm (advanced) | Antminer S21 | 17.5 J/TH | 1.2x vs BM1366 |
| 2024 | BM1370 | 5nm (cutting-edge) | Antminer S21 Pro | 15 J/TH | 1.17x vs BM1368 |
From 250 J/TH to 15 J/TH. That is a 16.7x improvement across the full lineage. Every watt of electricity you spend on a BM1370 buys you nearly 17 times the hashrate it would have on a BM1385. This is the relentless march of semiconductor physics applied to proof of work.
Generation 1: BM1385 — The 28nm Foundation (2015)
The Chip That Built the Mining Industry
The BM1385 was Bitmain’s entry into the 28nm process node, manufactured by TSMC. It powered the Antminer S7, which shipped in mid-2015 and quickly became one of the most widely deployed miners of its era.
| Specification | BM1385 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 28nm |
| Hash Rate per Chip | ~32.5 GH/s @ 0.66V |
| Power per Chip | ~0.216 W/GH |
| Package | QFN |
| Communication | UART, chain mode (up to 256 chips) |
| Chips per Board (S7) | 45 |
| Total Chips (S7) | 135 (3 boards) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S7 (4.73 TH/s, ~1210W) |
| System Efficiency | ~250 J/TH |
Technical Significance
The BM1385 represented a 45% hashrate increase and 50% power reduction compared to its predecessor, the BM1384. It established the design patterns that Bitmain would refine across every subsequent generation: a UART-based serial chain architecture, on-chip voltage regulation, and the QFN package form factor. The chip included a built-in voltage regulator diode and supported chain configurations of up to 256 chips per serial line — a scalable architecture that allowed Bitmain to build hash boards of varying sizes from the same silicon.
While the S7 is long obsolete for profitable mining, the BM1385 matters historically because it proved the viability of aggressive node shrinks for single-purpose mining silicon. Bitmain was learning to extract maximum hashes per transistor, and the lessons from 28nm would directly inform the legendary generation that followed.
Generation 2: BM1387 — The 16nm Legend (2016–2018)
The Most Successful Mining Chip Ever Made
If one chip defines Bitcoin mining, it is the BM1387. Released in 2016 inside the Antminer S9, this 16nm FinFET design from TSMC became the undisputed king of Bitcoin mining for over two years and remained relevant for nearly a decade. More BM1387 chips have hashed SHA-256 than any other ASIC in history.
| Specification | BM1387 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 16nm FinFET |
| Hash Rate per Chip | ~74 GH/s @ 650 MHz |
| Operating Voltage | ~0.4V per domain (21 domains in series) |
| Package | QFN-32 |
| On-chip Features | Built-in LDO regulators (LDO-251, LDO-180) |
| Chips per Board (S9) | 63 (21 domains x 3 chips) |
| Total Chips (S9) | 189 (3 boards) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S9 (13.5 TH/s, ~1323W) |
| System Efficiency | ~98 J/TH |
| Also Used In | Antminer S9i, S9j, T9, T9+, R4 |
Why the S9 Became Immortal
The BM1387 represented a near-perfect convergence of efficiency, cost, and timing. At 98 J/TH, the Antminer S9 was roughly 2.5 times more efficient than anything running BM1385 silicon. It arrived as Bitcoin’s price was beginning its historic 2017 bull run, and Bitmain manufactured millions of units. The S9 became the default mining rig for everyone from warehouse operators to basement hobbyists.
The chip’s architecture was straightforward but effective. Each hash board connected 63 BM1387 chips in a serial chain organized into 21 voltage domains of 3 chips each. Each domain operated at approximately 0.4V, with the voltage difference across domains kept within 0.05V for stability. The QFN-32 package with built-in LDO regulators simplified board design and kept manufacturing costs low.
But what truly made the S9 immortal was not its efficiency when it was new — it was its usefulness when it became old. As newer, more efficient miners rendered the S9 unprofitable for pure mining at market electricity rates, a second life emerged: Bitcoin space heaters. The 1,300 watts of heat the S9 produces is not a bug — it is a feature if you live in a cold climate and need to heat your home anyway. An S9 in a properly built enclosure replaces a 1,300-watt electric heater and mines Bitcoin as a byproduct. The electricity cost is identical to running the heater without the miner. The sats are free.
Repair Perspective
The BM1387 remains one of the most commonly serviced chips at D-Central. After years of operation, common failure modes include degraded LDO regulators, cracked solder joints under the QFN package (especially on boards that experienced thermal cycling), and individual chip failures that drop a domain and reduce hashrate. BM1387 chips are still widely available as replacement parts, and the well-documented architecture makes diagnosis straightforward for an experienced technician. Multiple variant suffixes exist (BM1387B, BM1387BE, BM1387BF, BM1387BL, BM1387E) — each designating a slightly different bin or revision, but all are functionally interchangeable for repair purposes.
Generation 3: BM1391 — The 7nm Trailblazer (2018)
First to 7 Nanometers
The BM1391 was a landmark chip: the first 7nm ASIC to reach production in the cryptocurrency mining industry. Bitmain beat both Samsung and competing mining chip designers to market with functional 7nm silicon, integrating over one billion transistors into a single mining die. It powered the Antminer S15 and represented a massive leap in power efficiency.
| Specification | BM1391 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 7nm |
| Transistor Count | ~1 billion |
| Hash Rate per Chip | ~120 GH/s |
| Power per Chip | ~55 mW/GH |
| Package | Exposed die (direct heatsink contact) |
| Voltage Domains | 3 small domains per chip (in series) |
| Chips per Board (S15) | 72 (12 domains x 6 chips) |
| Total Chips (S15) | 288 (4 boards) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S15 (28 TH/s, ~1596W) |
| System Efficiency | ~57 J/TH |
| Also Used In | Antminer T15 |
Architectural Innovations
The jump from 16nm to 7nm was not just a shrink — it was a redesign. The BM1391 introduced two significant changes:
Exposed die packaging. Instead of the traditional QFN package with a plastic mold compound, the BM1391 used an exposed die design where the silicon was directly accessible for heatsink contact. This eliminated a layer of thermal resistance and allowed the chip to run cooler at higher frequencies. It also introduced a new failure mode — exposed dies are more vulnerable to physical damage during handling and repair.
Three-domain internal architecture. Each BM1391 chip contained three small voltage domains connected in series internally. This was a departure from the BM1387’s simpler single-domain-per-chip design and allowed finer-grained power management within each chip.
The S15 also introduced Bitmain’s dual-tube cooling system, with separate copper heat pipes for the front and back of each hash board. This addressed the increased heat density that came with packing more transistors into a smaller die area.
Market Impact
At 57 J/TH, the S15 was 1.7 times more efficient than the S9. But the S15 had a short commercial window. Bitmain released it in late 2018 during a brutal bear market, and by early 2019, the refined BM1397 was already shipping. The S15’s main legacy is proving that 7nm was viable for mining and establishing the architectural patterns that the next three chip generations would build upon.
Generation 4: BM1397 — The 7nm Workhorse (2019)
Refined 7nm, Multiple Bins, Massive Deployment
The BM1397 was not a new node — it was a refined version of the 7nm process that Bitmain had proven with the BM1391. But the refinement was substantial. Better yields, higher frequencies, lower power consumption, and critically, multiple binning grades that allowed Bitmain to sort chips by performance and build different miner models from the same silicon.
| Specification | BM1397 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 7nm FinFET (refined) |
| Hash Rate per Chip | ~320 GH/s (up to ~400 GH/s in top bins) |
| Efficiency | ~30 J/TH (chip-level) |
| Communication | UART (115200 bps, 8N1) |
| Clock Input | 25 MHz external crystal |
| Frequency | ~600 MHz (tunable via PLL) |
| Chips per Board (S17 Pro) | 48 |
| Total Chips (S17 Pro) | 144 (3 boards) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S17 Pro (53 TH/s, ~2094W) |
| System Efficiency | 36–40 J/TH (mode-dependent) |
| Also Used In | S17, S17+, S17e, T17, T17+, T17e |
The Binning System
One of the most important concepts the BM1397 introduced to the mining industry was chip binning. Not all chips from a wafer perform identically. Bitmain sorted BM1397 chips into different performance bins, each designated by a letter suffix:
| Variant | Characteristics | Used In |
|---|---|---|
| BM1397AD | Baseline bin | T17 base models |
| BM1397AG | High-temperature resilience | S17, S17 Pro, S17+ |
| BM1397AH | Voltage efficiency optimized | T17+, select S17 models |
| BM1397AI | Most advanced bin (highest performance) | S17e, T17e |
| BM1397AF | Additional variant | Select 17-series models |
This is critical information for repair technicians. You cannot blindly swap a BM1397AD into a board designed for BM1397AG — the voltage and thermal characteristics differ. At D-Central, chip bin identification is one of the first steps in any 17-series repair.
The S17 Problem
Despite the chip’s excellent performance on paper, the 17 series earned a reputation for reliability issues. Thermal cycling caused solder joint failures. Some boards developed intermittent domain drops. The S17 Pro in particular became known for hashboard failures that required skilled technicians with BGA rework equipment to resolve. Ironically, these reliability issues made the 17 series one of the most commonly repaired miner families — and one of D-Central’s busiest repair categories.
Open-Source Legacy
The BM1397 holds a special place in the open-source mining movement. It was the chip used in the original Bitaxe — the first successful open-source Bitcoin ASIC miner. Skot, the Bitaxe creator, chose the BM1397 because its UART communication protocol and register architecture were well-enough understood to be reverse-engineered and documented. A single BM1397 on a tiny PCB produces approximately 320–400 GH/s — enough to solo mine and participate in the Bitcoin network from your desk. The BM1397 proved that mining did not have to be an industrial activity.
Generation 5: BM1398 — The 7nm Performance Bin (2020)
S19 Era: The Installed Base King
The BM1398 is best understood as the performance bin of the BM1397 family. Same 7nm process node, but with optimized chip design and tighter manufacturing tolerances that pushed efficiency from the 36–40 J/TH range down to 29.5–34 J/TH at the system level. It powered what became the largest generation of ASIC miners by installed base: the Antminer S19 series.
| Specification | BM1398 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 7nm (optimized) |
| Operating Voltage | 0.36–0.38V per domain |
| Domain Configuration | 38 groups of 2 chips (76 per board) |
| Chips per Board (S19) | 76 |
| Total Chips (S19) | 228 (3 boards) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S19 Pro (110 TH/s, ~3250W) |
| System Efficiency | 29.5 J/TH (S19 Pro) |
| Key Variants | BM1398BB (S19/S19 Pro/T19), BM1398AC (S19a/S19a Pro/S19+) |
| Also Used In | S19, S19 Pro, S19a, S19a Pro, S19+, T19 |
Architecture Details
The BM1398 introduced a simpler voltage domain structure compared to the BM1397. Each S19 hash board organizes 76 chips into 38 groups of 2 ICs each, with each domain operating at 0.36–0.38V. This paired-chip domain design improved manufacturing consistency and made voltage tuning more predictable across boards.
Two main chip variants serve different board designs:
- BM1398BB — Used in the standard S19, S19 Pro, and T19. This is the most common variant.
- BM1398AC — Used in the S19a, S19a Pro, and S19+. Different pad layout requiring matching board design.
These are not interchangeable. Swapping a BM1398BB into a board designed for BM1398AC will result in a non-functional hashboard. This is a critical detail for repair work.
The S19’s Market Dominance
The timing was perfect. The S19 series shipped into the 2020–2021 bull market, and Bitmain produced massive quantities. The S19 Pro became the industry workhorse — efficient enough to be profitable at reasonable electricity rates, reliable enough to run for years, and produced in sufficient volume to be readily available. As of 2025, the S19 series still represents the largest share of Bitcoin’s global hashrate by installed unit count.
For home miners, the S19 represents an interesting middle ground. Its efficiency (29.5 J/TH) is good enough to be profitable at moderate electricity rates in many regions, while its 3,250W power draw produces substantial heat — making it an excellent candidate for D-Central’s S19 Space Heater conversions. Not as much waste heat per TH as the S9, but vastly more total hashrate.
Generation 6: BM1362 — The 5nm Transition (2021)
Jumping to a New Process Node
The BM1362 marked Bitmain’s transition from 7nm to 5nm fabrication, another TSMC process shrink that promised higher transistor density and improved power efficiency. It debuted in the Antminer S19j and S19j Pro — miners that slotted into the existing S19 product family but with next-generation silicon under the heatsinks.
| Specification | BM1362 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 5nm |
| Domain Configuration | 42 domains of 3 chips (126 per board) |
| Chips per Board (S19j Pro) | 126 |
| Total Chips (S19j Pro) | 378 (3 boards) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S19j Pro (104 TH/s, ~3068W) |
| System Efficiency | 29.5 J/TH |
| Key Variants | BM1362AA, BM1362AC, BM1362AJ, BM1362AK, BM1362AI, BM1362BD |
| Also Used In | S19j, S19j Pro+, S19 Pro+ Hydro, S19 XP+ Hydro |
More Chips, Same Efficiency — Why?
At first glance, the BM1362 looks like a lateral move. The S19j Pro achieves 29.5 J/TH — the same system efficiency as the BM1398-based S19 Pro. So why bother with a new chip on a more expensive process node?
The answer is economics and chip design strategy. The 5nm process allows Bitmain to use smaller, simpler dies. Each individual BM1362 chip hashes at a lower rate than a BM1398, but the chips are cheaper to produce per unit, and more of them fit on a hash board. The S19j Pro packs 126 chips per board versus the S19 Pro’s 76 — nearly twice as many. By running more chips at lower individual power levels, Bitmain achieves the same system-level efficiency while improving manufacturing yield and reducing the impact of any single chip failure.
This is also when Bitmain introduced the noPIC variant — hash boards without the traditional PIC microcontroller for authentication. The noPIC boards simplified manufacturing and reduced costs, though they also changed the repair and firmware landscape.
Variant Proliferation
The BM1362 has one of the widest variant families: BM1362AA, BM1362AC, BM1362AJ, BM1362AK, BM1362AI, and BM1362BD. Each variant maps to a specific board revision and miner model. The BM1362BD, for example, is used in the S19j Pro+ (122 TH/s). As with the BM1397 and BM1398, these variants are not freely interchangeable — correct chip-to-board matching is essential for successful repair.
Generation 7: BM1366 — The Enhanced 5nm (2022)
Pushing 5nm Further
The BM1366 is where 5nm silicon started showing its real potential. While the BM1362 matched the BM1398’s efficiency using the smaller process, the BM1366 pushed well beyond it — achieving 21.5 J/TH in the Antminer S19 XP. This represented a 27% efficiency improvement over the previous generation and established the BM1366 as the most efficient commercially deployed mining chip of its era.
| Specification | BM1366 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 5nm (enhanced) |
| Hash Rate per Chip | ~500 GH/s |
| Chip-level Efficiency | ~19 W/TH |
| Domain Configuration (S19 XP) | 11 domains of 10 chips (110 per board) |
| Chips per Board (S19 XP) | 110 |
| Total Chips (S19 XP) | 330 (3 boards) |
| Chips per Board (S19k Pro) | 77 (11 domains x 7 chips) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S19 XP (140 TH/s, ~3010W) |
| System Efficiency | 21.5 J/TH |
| Key Variants | BM1366AL/AG (S19 XP), BM1366BS/BP/AH (S19k Pro) |
| Also Used In | S19 XP Hydro, S19k Pro, Bitaxe Ultra |
BSM Technology (Ball Soldered Module)
The S19k Pro variant of the BM1366 introduced BSM (Ball Soldered Module) technology. In traditional hash board construction, the ASIC chip sits in a package and thermal paste transfers heat to a heatsink. With BSM, the chip surface is copper-plated, and the heatsink is directly soldered to the chip with tin. This eliminates the thermal interface material entirely, creating a near-perfect thermal connection between the die and the cooling system.
BSM dramatically improves heat extraction, allowing the chips to run at higher frequencies or lower temperatures at the same frequency. The trade-off is repairability — desoldering a BSM heatsink to replace a failed chip requires specialized equipment and technique. This is a repair process D-Central has mastered, but it is significantly more complex than replacing a traditional QFN or BGA-packaged chip.
The Bitaxe Ultra
The BM1366 became the heart of the Bitaxe Ultra — the second major revision of the open-source Bitaxe miner family. A single BM1366 chip produces approximately 500 GH/s, a significant step up from the BM1397’s 320–400 GH/s. This made the Bitaxe Ultra the first open-source solo miner to push past half a terahash, substantially improving the odds of a solo block find compared to the original BM1397-based Bitaxe.
D-Central was a pioneer in the Bitaxe ecosystem from the beginning. We stock the Bitaxe Ultra, developed custom accessories, and manufactured the original Bitaxe Mesh Stand — the first commercial stand designed specifically for Bitaxe devices.
Generation 8: BM1368 — The 5nm Efficiency Wall-Breaker (2023)
Breaking Through 20 J/TH
The BM1368 represented the first mining chip to break the 20 J/TH barrier in a full-size air-cooled miner. Powering the Antminer S21, it achieved 17.5 J/TH at the system level — an 18.6% improvement over the BM1366. This was a significant milestone because many in the industry believed that 5nm silicon was running up against fundamental efficiency limits. The BM1368 proved there was still room to optimize.
| Specification | BM1368 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 5nm (advanced) |
| Chips per Board (S21) | 88 |
| Total Chips (S21) | 264 (3 boards) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S21 (200 TH/s, ~3500W) |
| System Efficiency | 17.5 J/TH |
| Key Variants | BM1368PB, BM1368PA, BM1368PM, BM1368PV, BM1368AA |
| Also Used In | T21, S21 Hydro |
The S21 Leap
The Antminer S21 was not an incremental update — it was a generational leap. 200 TH/s from a single air-cooled unit at 17.5 J/TH. That is nearly double the hashrate of the S19 XP at a lower efficiency figure. The S21 also introduced a redesigned chassis with improved airflow, four high-speed fans in a front-to-back configuration, and a new thermal design that extracted heat more efficiently from the BM1368 chips.
For home miners, the S21 is the first modern full-size ASIC that is realistic for living-space deployment. At 17.5 J/TH, its heat output per terahash is 82% lower than the S9’s. Combined with improved fan designs and acoustic treatment options, the S21 is quieter and more manageable than any previous generation of comparable hashrate.
Repair Considerations
The BM1368 has a wide family of variants (PB, PA, PM, PV, AA), and as with all modern Bitmain chips, correct variant matching is essential for repair. D-Central stocks all BM1368 variants and has developed repair procedures for the S21’s hash boards. The chip’s advanced packaging and BSM-style thermal connections require precision rework equipment — this is not entry-level repair work.
Generation 9: BM1370 — The Current State of the Art (2024)
Peak Efficiency: 15 J/TH
The BM1370 is Bitmain’s current flagship mining ASIC. It powers the Antminer S21 Pro at an industry-leading 15 J/TH — the most efficient air-cooled Bitcoin miner commercially available. Each individual chip delivers approximately 1.2 TH/s — more than double the per-chip hashrate of the BM1366 — while consuming less power per hash.
| Specification | BM1370 |
|---|---|
| Process Node | TSMC 5nm (cutting-edge variant) |
| Hash Rate per Chip | ~1.0–1.2 TH/s |
| Chip-level Efficiency | ~15 W/TH |
| Chips per Board (S21 Pro) | 65 |
| Total Chips (S21 Pro) | 195 (3 boards) |
| Flagship Miner | Antminer S21 Pro (234 TH/s, ~3510W) |
| System Efficiency | 15 J/TH |
| Key Variants | BM1370BB, BM1370BC, BM1370AA, BM1370PA, BM1370PB, BM1370PF |
| Also Used In | S21 XP, S21+, S21 XP Hydro, Bitaxe Gamma, Bitaxe GT, NerdQAxe++ |
The 1 TH/s Per Chip Milestone
The BM1370 is the first Bitmain mining chip to exceed 1 terahash per second per chip. Consider what this means: a single piece of silicon, smaller than your fingernail, computes one trillion SHA-256 hashes every second. When the BM1385 launched in 2015, an entire Antminer S7 with 135 chips produced 4.73 TH/s. A single BM1370 chip now outperforms that entire miner by a factor of roughly 250x in hashrate — while consuming a fraction of the power.
The S21 Pro packs 195 BM1370 chips across three hashboards and delivers 234 TH/s at 3,510 watts. The cooling system features four high-speed fans with operating noise around 76 dB at 25 degrees Celsius. The miner accepts 220–277V input and weighs approximately 20 kg.
The Open-Source Frontier: Bitaxe Gamma and GT
The BM1370 is where the open-source mining revolution reaches its current peak. The Bitaxe Gamma (601 series) is the fifth major revision of the Bitaxe project, running a single BM1370 chip at approximately 1.2 TH/s with an efficiency of roughly 15–18 J/TH. The Bitaxe GT pushes even further as the latest iteration of open-source BM1370-based miners.
The NerdQAxe++ takes a different approach — using multiple BM1370 chips in a quad-chip configuration for significantly higher hashrate from a single open-source board.
D-Central was among the first to manufacture and sell Bitaxe Gamma units, and we stock the full ecosystem of BM1370-based open-source miners and accessories — heatsinks, stands, power supplies, and DIY kits. If you want to solo mine with the most efficient open-source hardware available, the BM1370 is the chip to build on.
The Master Comparison: Every Bitmain SHA-256 Chip Side by Side
| Chip | Year | Node | GH/s per Chip | System J/TH | Flagship Miner | Chips/Board | Total Chips |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BM1385 | 2015 | 28nm | ~32.5 | ~250 | Antminer S7 | 45 | 135 |
| BM1387 | 2016 | 16nm | ~74 | 98 | Antminer S9 | 63 | 189 |
| BM1391 | 2018 | 7nm | ~120 | 57 | Antminer S15 | 72 | 288 |
| BM1397 | 2019 | 7nm | ~320 | 36–40 | Antminer S17 Pro | 48 | 144 |
| BM1398 | 2020 | 7nm | ~350–400 | 29.5 | Antminer S19 Pro | 76 | 228 |
| BM1362 | 2021 | 5nm | ~280 | 29.5 | Antminer S19j Pro | 126 | 378 |
| BM1366 | 2022 | 5nm | ~500 | 21.5 | Antminer S19 XP | 110 | 330 |
| BM1368 | 2023 | 5nm | ~750 | 17.5 | Antminer S21 | 88 | 264 |
| BM1370 | 2024 | 5nm | ~1,000–1,200 | 15 | Antminer S21 Pro | 65 | 195 |
Notice two trends in the data above. First, efficiency improves steadily with each generation — that is expected. Second, the number of chips per miner has fluctuated dramatically. The S19j Pro packed 378 total chips, while the S21 Pro achieves far higher hashrate with only 195. Fewer, more powerful chips means simpler board designs, fewer potential points of failure, and lower manufacturing costs. This is the natural endpoint of Moore’s Law applied to mining: each chip does more, so you need fewer of them.
Efficiency Trend Analysis: The Exponential Curve Flattens
If you plot the J/TH numbers on a timeline, a clear pattern emerges:
| Period | Efficiency Gain | Driver |
|---|---|---|
| BM1385 to BM1387 (2015-2016) | ~2.5x | Process node jump: 28nm to 16nm |
| BM1387 to BM1391 (2016-2018) | ~1.7x | Process node jump: 16nm to 7nm |
| BM1391 to BM1398 (2018-2020) | ~1.9x | Architecture optimization within 7nm |
| BM1398 to BM1366 (2020-2022) | ~1.4x | Process node jump: 7nm to 5nm + optimization |
| BM1366 to BM1370 (2022-2024) | ~1.4x | Architecture optimization within 5nm |
The early gains were dramatic — shrinking from 28nm to 7nm provided massive efficiency leaps. But the improvements are getting smaller. Moving from 7nm to 5nm and optimizing within 5nm has yielded significant but more modest gains. This is the physical reality of semiconductor manufacturing: each node shrink costs more, takes longer, and delivers diminishing returns compared to the previous shrink.
The industry is approaching what engineers call the thermodynamic efficiency limit — the minimum energy required to compute a SHA-256 hash given the fundamental physics of moving electrons through transistor gates. We are not there yet, but the gap is closing. The era of 2x efficiency gains every two years is over. Future improvements will be measured in percentages, not multiples.
This has profound implications for miners. It means that a miner purchased today will remain competitive for longer than one purchased in 2016. The BM1370’s 15 J/TH will not be rendered obsolete by a chip doing 3 J/TH in two years. Efficiency improvements from here are incremental, which makes current-generation hardware a more stable investment than at any previous point in mining history.
What This Means for Home Miners
Understanding chip generations is not academic — it directly informs the best hardware choices for your specific situation. Different use cases favor different generations of silicon.
Space Heater Applications: Older Chips Win
If your primary goal is heating your home while mining Bitcoin as a byproduct, less efficient chips are actually better. Here is the logic:
- A 1,300-watt electric space heater produces 1,300 watts of heat. An Antminer S9 (BM1387) running at 1,300 watts also produces 1,300 watts of heat — the laws of thermodynamics guarantee it. But the S9 also produces 13.5 TH/s of Bitcoin mining hashrate that the space heater does not.
- At 98 J/TH, the S9 converts a larger percentage of its electricity into “waste” heat versus useful computation compared to an S21 Pro at 15 J/TH. But when that heat is the point, this is an advantage — you get the same heating for the same electricity cost, and the mining is free.
- Older miners are also dramatically cheaper to buy. A used S9 costs a fraction of an S21 Pro. For space heater duty, the upfront cost difference matters more than efficiency.
D-Central’s Space Heater line spans multiple chip generations: S9 (BM1387), L3 (Scrypt, but same concept), S17 (BM1397), and S19 (BM1398). Each generation offers a different balance of heat output, hashrate, noise, and acquisition cost.
Living Space Mining: Newer Chips Win
If you want a miner in your office, bedroom, or living room, chip efficiency determines livability:
- Less heat per TH means less aggressive cooling needed, which means quieter fans
- Lower total wattage for the same hashrate means less heat in the room during summer months
- Smaller form factors become possible with more efficient chips — a Bitaxe Gamma (BM1370) produces 1.2 TH/s from a device the size of a credit card with zero audible noise
For quiet living-space deployment, the BM1366, BM1368, and BM1370 generations are the sweet spot. Whether you choose a full-size S21 in a noise-dampened enclosure or a whisper-quiet Bitaxe on your desk depends on your hashrate ambitions and noise tolerance.
The Sweet Spot for Different Use Cases
| Use Case | Best Chip Generation | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Space heater (garage/workshop) | BM1387 (S9) | Cheapest to buy, maximum heat per dollar, noise irrelevant |
| Space heater (living space) | BM1397/BM1398 (S17/S19) | Better hashrate-to-noise ratio, still affordable used |
| Maximum profitability mining | BM1370 (S21 Pro) | Lowest J/TH means lowest operating cost per TH |
| Silent desk miner / solo lottery | BM1370 (Bitaxe Gamma/GT) | 1.2 TH/s, fanless or near-silent, USB-C powered |
| Budget solo miner / learning | BM1366 (Bitaxe Ultra) | 500 GH/s, lower cost, proven platform |
| Multi-chip open-source rig | BM1370 (NerdQAxe++) | Multiple chips, higher hashrate, still open-source |
The Open-Source Revolution: ASIC Chips Liberated
For most of Bitcoin mining history, ASIC chips were locked inside proprietary hardware. You could only use a BM1387 if Bitmain decided to put it in a product and sell it to you. The firmware was closed. The communication protocols were undocumented. The hash board designs were trade secrets. Mining hardware was a black box.
That changed with the Bitaxe project.
In 2022, Skot and a growing community of open-source hardware developers began reverse-engineering Bitmain’s ASIC communication protocols. They figured out how to talk to a BM1397 chip over UART, configure its registers, feed it work, and read back solutions. They designed open-source PCBs, published the schematics, shared the firmware (ESP-Miner), and released everything under permissive licenses.
The result: anyone can now build a Bitcoin miner from scratch. Buy the chip. Solder it to an open-source board. Flash the firmware. Point it at a solo pool. Mine Bitcoin.
| Bitaxe Version | ASIC Chip | Hash Rate | Source Miner |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bitaxe (original) | BM1397 | ~320–400 GH/s | Antminer S17 series |
| Bitaxe Supra | BM1366 | ~500 GH/s | Antminer S19 XP |
| Bitaxe Ultra | BM1366 | ~500 GH/s | Antminer S19 XP |
| Bitaxe Hex | BM1366 (x6) | ~3 TH/s | Antminer S19 XP |
| Bitaxe Gamma (601) | BM1370 | ~1.2 TH/s | Antminer S21 Pro |
| Bitaxe GT | BM1370 | ~1.2 TH/s | Antminer S21 Pro |
| NerdQAxe++ | BM1370 (x4) | ~4+ TH/s | Antminer S21 Pro |
This is what makes the open-source mining movement fundamentally important to Bitcoin’s decentralization. The same silicon that Bitmain designs for industrial deployments is now available to anyone — in open-source hardware, with open-source firmware, running on solo pools. You do not need to trust a manufacturer’s black box. You can read the source code, examine the schematic, and verify the hardware yourself.
D-Central has been part of this ecosystem since its earliest days. We created the original Bitaxe Mesh Stand, developed heatsinks for both single-chip and multi-chip Bitaxe boards, and stock every Bitaxe variant along with all compatible accessories. We are not just selling hardware — we are actively building the infrastructure for decentralized, open-source Bitcoin mining.
What’s Next: The Road Ahead
Where does chip evolution go from here? Several trends are converging:
3nm and Beyond
TSMC’s 3nm process (N3 and N3E) is already in production for consumer electronics — Apple’s A17 Pro and M3 chips use it. Mining chip manufacturers are likely evaluating 3nm for future generations. However, the economics of 3nm are challenging: wafer costs are significantly higher than 5nm, and the efficiency gains may not justify the premium for mining applications where margins are tight. The jump from 5nm to 3nm will not deliver the same magnitude of improvement that 28nm to 7nm did.
Architectural Innovation Over Node Shrinks
As process shrinks deliver diminishing returns, the next frontier of mining chip efficiency is architectural. This includes:
- Better power delivery — more efficient on-chip voltage regulators, adaptive voltage scaling
- Thermal design co-optimization — chips designed hand-in-hand with cooling systems (BSM was a preview of this)
- Improved pipeline designs — more efficient SHA-256 pipeline layouts that reduce switching power
- Advanced packaging — chiplet architectures, 3D stacking, and other packaging innovations that improve density without needing a smaller process node
Immersion and Hydro Cooling
Bitmain already produces hydro-cooled variants of many models (S19 XP Hydro, S21 Hydro). Liquid cooling allows chips to run at higher frequencies and lower temperatures simultaneously, extracting more hashrate per watt. As chip efficiency plateaus, cooling innovation becomes the next multiplier.
The Competition Factor
Bitmain does not operate in a vacuum. MicroBT (Whatsminer), Canaan (Avalon), and other manufacturers are pushing their own chip designs. Competition drives innovation faster than any single company’s roadmap. The next major efficiency breakthrough could come from anywhere.
For Home Miners
The practical implication is this: if you are buying hardware today, you are buying at or near the flattest part of the efficiency curve. A miner purchased in 2025–2026 will remain within a reasonable efficiency range of whatever ships in 2028–2029. This was not true in 2016, when the S9 was made obsolete by the S15 in two years. The days of rapid obsolescence are largely behind us for Bitcoin mining hardware.
Frequently Asked Questions
What does J/TH actually mean?
J/TH stands for Joules per Terahash. It measures how much energy a miner consumes for every trillion SHA-256 hashes it computes. Lower is better. A miner rated at 15 J/TH uses 15 joules of energy for every 1 TH/s of hashrate per second. In practical terms, it tells you how much electricity you burn for a given amount of mining work. An S9 at 98 J/TH uses 6.5 times more electricity per hash than an S21 Pro at 15 J/TH.
Can I mix different chip variants on the same hash board during repair?
No. Each chip variant (for example, BM1397AG versus BM1397AH, or BM1398BB versus BM1398AC) has specific voltage characteristics and pad layouts. Installing the wrong variant can result in a non-functional board or, in some cases, damage. Always verify the exact chip marking on the failed chip and replace it with the identical variant. If you are unsure, consult a professional repair service like D-Central before ordering parts.
Why does the BM1362 have the same efficiency as the BM1398 despite being a newer chip?
The BM1362 uses a 5nm process but achieves the same system-level efficiency (~29.5 J/TH) as the 7nm BM1398 because Bitmain optimized for different goals. The 5nm die is smaller and cheaper to produce, the chips are lower-power individually (allowing more per board), and yields are better. The efficiency gains of 5nm were “spent” on reducing per-chip cost and improving manufacturing economics rather than pushing J/TH lower. That came with the BM1366.
Which chip does the Bitaxe use?
Multiple chips depending on the version. The original Bitaxe used the BM1397. The Bitaxe Supra and Ultra use the BM1366. The Bitaxe Gamma (601) and Bitaxe GT use the BM1370 — the same chip as the Antminer S21 Pro. The Bitaxe Hex uses six BM1366 chips for higher hashrate. D-Central stocks all variants.
Is an older-generation chip useless for mining?
No. Older chips are less efficient, meaning higher electricity costs per TH. But in specific scenarios they remain valuable. If you are using a miner as a space heater, the electricity converts to heat regardless — the mining is a bonus. If you have free or extremely cheap electricity (excess solar, surplus hydro), older hardware can still be profitable. And for solo/lottery mining on a Bitaxe, even a BM1397 gives you a non-zero shot at a full block reward.
What is BSM technology and why does it matter?
BSM (Ball Soldered Module) is a thermal interface technology where the heatsink is directly soldered to the chip’s copper-plated surface with tin, eliminating thermal paste or pads. This creates superior heat transfer, allowing chips to run cooler or at higher frequencies. BSM was introduced with the BM1366 in the S19k Pro and is used in newer models. The trade-off is that repair becomes significantly harder — removing a BSM heatsink requires specialized desoldering equipment and precise temperature control to avoid damaging the chip or board.
Will future chips make current hardware completely obsolete?
Unlikely in the near term. The efficiency improvement curve is flattening. The jump from BM1385 to BM1387 was 2.5x in one year. The jump from BM1368 to BM1370 was 1.17x. Future node shrinks (3nm, 2nm) will cost more and deliver smaller gains. Hardware purchased today will remain within a competitive efficiency range for longer than any previous generation. The days of 2x efficiency leaps every 18 months are behind us.
Why D-Central: Every Generation, Serviced and Sold
D-Central Technologies has been in the Bitcoin mining business since 2016 — the year the BM1387 shipped inside the Antminer S9. We have worked with every chip generation covered in this guide: repaired them, replaced them, overclocked them, underclocked them, and built them into custom products.
ASIC Repair Across All Generations. Our repair lab handles everything from BM1387 replacements on S9 hash boards to BM1370 rework on S21 Pro units. We stock chip variants for every generation, maintain model-specific repair procedures for 38+ Antminer models, and have the BGA rework equipment needed for modern BSM-packaged chips. If your hashboard has a failed ASIC, we can identify the variant, source the replacement, and get your miner back online.
Open-Source Mining Pioneer. D-Central was involved in the Bitaxe ecosystem from its earliest days. We manufactured the original Bitaxe Mesh Stand, developed custom heatsinks for single-chip and multi-chip boards, and stock every current Bitaxe variant — Supra, Ultra, Hex, Gamma, GT — along with all compatible accessories, power supplies, and DIY kits. We carry the full NerdMiner, NerdAxe, NerdNOS, and NerdQAxe lineup as well.
Bitcoin Space Heaters. We pioneered the concept of converting “obsolete” mining hardware into dual-purpose space heaters. Our Space Heater product line covers the S9, L3, S17, and S19 — each generation of retired miner gets a second life heating Canadian homes while stacking sats. The BM1387 started as a mining chip. In a D-Central Space Heater, it becomes a heating element that pays you back.
Parts and Chips. We sell individual ASIC chips for all major generations — BM1387, BM1397, BM1398, BM1362, BM1366, BM1368, BM1370. Whether you are repairing your own hardware or building an open-source miner from scratch, D-Central has the silicon you need.